RECENT LANG AND GENDER THEORIES.

INTRO TO DEBORAH CAMERON:
More recently, Cameron (2008) has criticised the idea that there are innate differences in male and female speech. Cameron argues: 'The idea that men and women... use language in very different ways and for very different reasons is one of the great myths of our time' (p.163)

Source: The Myth of Mars and Venus.

Cameron outlines how these myths have evolved from ideas that:

• Women pay more attention than men,
• Men have a natural desire to be competitive that results in an aggressive speech style,
• Women talk more about people, relationships and feelings,
• Men talk more about facts and things.

Cameron challenges various aspects of research by Lakoff, Fishman and Tannen. She argues that these myths have acted to shape our expectations of men and women, and the types of linguistic behaviour that we deem to be normal or deviant. In short, they continue to promote further myth making.

RECENT THEORIES (CRITICAL OF DEFICIT/DIFFERENCE):

Cameron's work represents recent studies into language and gender that have moved away from categorising speech male and female speech styles as polarised and driven by biological differences. 

Instead, focusing on how speakers construct and perform gender identities for themselves, which may either draw on or challenge perceived stereotypes. The idea that gender is something that speakers and writers 'do' as part of a deliberate  projecting of identity is critical of the deficit and difference models of language.

GENDER SIMILARITIES HYPOTHESIS:

Psychologist Janet Hyde (2005) proposes a 'gender similarities hypothesis'. She says that there are actually more similarities than there are differences between male and female language, which  may be due to a number of variables such as age, class, ethnicity, education, occupation, sexuality, politics etc.

GENDER PERFORMATIVITY:

Judith Butler, Gender Trouble (1990)

Butler argues that it is a mistake to reinforce a binary view of gender and to assert that women are a group with common interests and characteristics. Her view is that gender is 'performative' and we are playing a role when we speak: 'We act and walk and speak and talk in ways that consolidate an impression of being a man or being a woman.' 

So, we are not biologically constructed but conform to social norms.

Spoken Language and Terminology Videos

Armstrong and Miller show: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r_b1Y-Rl_Uo




Vicky Pollard: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rxCPj40eFNc




Doc Brown slang: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ympI2mdABUM




David Letterman: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRb_3hCa72Y

Language and Gender theorists:

Robin Lakoff - Language and Woman's Place (1975)
(Lakoff- talks about lack off power reflected in language)
Lakoff concluded that these features were more common in women's language than men's:


1. Hedges: Phrases like 'sort of', 'kind of'
2. Empty adjectives: 'divine, 'adorable, 'gorgeous'
3. Super-polite forms: Would you mind...' 'Is it Ok if...?'
4. Apologise more 'I'm sorry, but I think that...'
5. Speak less frequently.
6. Avoid coarse language or expletives.
7. Tag questions: 'You don't mind eating this, do you?'
8. Hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation: Use of prestige grammar and clear articulation.
9. Indirect requests: 'I'm so thirsty.' - really asking for a drink.
10. Speak in italics: Use tone to emphasise certain words, e.g. 'so', 'very', 'quite'.




Jenny Cheshire (1982)


Jenny Cheshire looked specifically at certain grammatical variations in the speech of young children and considered the frequency of the children using:


1. Non-standard -s (she calls me)
2. Non-standard has (you has to)
3. Non-standard was (you was)
4. Multiple negation
5. Non-standard never
6. Non-standard what (are you the boys what hit)
7. Non-standard do (she do)
8. Non-standard come (I come here yesterday)
9. Use of ain't.


Overall, boys used the non-standard forms more frequently than girls did. Cheshire concluded that 'variation is controlled by both social and linguistic factors. In boys' speech, variation is governed by norms that are central to the vernacular culture and are transmitted through the peer group. Variation in the girls' speech appears to be a more personal process and less rigidly controlled by vernacular norms. '




Pamela Fishman - The Dominance Model


Wrote 'Interaction: the Work Women do' looking specifically at aspects of language that can be linked to Lakoff's research except Fisherman came to different conclusions.
For example, she focused on the use of tag questions and listened to 52 hours of pre-recorded conversations between young American couples, and like Lakoff, concluded that tag questions were used far more commonly among women (up to 4x more).
Lakoff concluded that the use of tag questions represents uncertainty. Where as, Fishman argues that tag questions are actually used to start conversations with males and to continue and sustain dialogue.
She states that as men often do not always respond to a declarative statement or only respond minimally, females use tag questions to gain conversational power rather than as a sign of tentativeness.
Women are the ones who are trying to initiate a conversation and keep it going, an action she terms 'conversational shitwork'.
However, Fishman does accept that this is due to male dominance- males are reluctant to do this 'shitwork' because of what they perceive to be their dominant role.




Difference Model Research


Jennifer Coates (1989) - Argues that girls and boys tend to belong to same-sex friendship groups when growing up and so develop different styles of speaking.
Female language is cooperative in single-sex conversations. She says tag questions and modality make women's talk supportive and cooperative.


Jane Pilkington (1992) - Found that women in same sex conversations were collaborative and use positive politeness strategies. She found that men in same sex talk were a lot less collaborative, less complimentary and less supportive than women.