Language and Gender theorists:

Robin Lakoff - Language and Woman's Place (1975)
(Lakoff- talks about lack off power reflected in language)
Lakoff concluded that these features were more common in women's language than men's:


1. Hedges: Phrases like 'sort of', 'kind of'
2. Empty adjectives: 'divine, 'adorable, 'gorgeous'
3. Super-polite forms: Would you mind...' 'Is it Ok if...?'
4. Apologise more 'I'm sorry, but I think that...'
5. Speak less frequently.
6. Avoid coarse language or expletives.
7. Tag questions: 'You don't mind eating this, do you?'
8. Hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation: Use of prestige grammar and clear articulation.
9. Indirect requests: 'I'm so thirsty.' - really asking for a drink.
10. Speak in italics: Use tone to emphasise certain words, e.g. 'so', 'very', 'quite'.




Jenny Cheshire (1982)


Jenny Cheshire looked specifically at certain grammatical variations in the speech of young children and considered the frequency of the children using:


1. Non-standard -s (she calls me)
2. Non-standard has (you has to)
3. Non-standard was (you was)
4. Multiple negation
5. Non-standard never
6. Non-standard what (are you the boys what hit)
7. Non-standard do (she do)
8. Non-standard come (I come here yesterday)
9. Use of ain't.


Overall, boys used the non-standard forms more frequently than girls did. Cheshire concluded that 'variation is controlled by both social and linguistic factors. In boys' speech, variation is governed by norms that are central to the vernacular culture and are transmitted through the peer group. Variation in the girls' speech appears to be a more personal process and less rigidly controlled by vernacular norms. '




Pamela Fishman - The Dominance Model


Wrote 'Interaction: the Work Women do' looking specifically at aspects of language that can be linked to Lakoff's research except Fisherman came to different conclusions.
For example, she focused on the use of tag questions and listened to 52 hours of pre-recorded conversations between young American couples, and like Lakoff, concluded that tag questions were used far more commonly among women (up to 4x more).
Lakoff concluded that the use of tag questions represents uncertainty. Where as, Fishman argues that tag questions are actually used to start conversations with males and to continue and sustain dialogue.
She states that as men often do not always respond to a declarative statement or only respond minimally, females use tag questions to gain conversational power rather than as a sign of tentativeness.
Women are the ones who are trying to initiate a conversation and keep it going, an action she terms 'conversational shitwork'.
However, Fishman does accept that this is due to male dominance- males are reluctant to do this 'shitwork' because of what they perceive to be their dominant role.




Difference Model Research


Jennifer Coates (1989) - Argues that girls and boys tend to belong to same-sex friendship groups when growing up and so develop different styles of speaking.
Female language is cooperative in single-sex conversations. She says tag questions and modality make women's talk supportive and cooperative.


Jane Pilkington (1992) - Found that women in same sex conversations were collaborative and use positive politeness strategies. She found that men in same sex talk were a lot less collaborative, less complimentary and less supportive than women.